Subculture Theory

To start my study on Japanese fashion I first read into the subject of subcultures. Japanese subcultures are a part of what I will be researching, and to understand them it is important to understand what is significant about subcultures themselves. The sources I used were Fashion at the Edge, by Caroline Evans (2003), Hearts and Masks, by David Muggleson (2000), Subculture: The Unnatural Break, by Dick Hebridge (1979), and the Introduction and first chapter of Yuniya Kawamura’s book Fashioning Japanese Subcultures (pg 1-20).

A group of punks, photo credit to streetcarnage.com

The Merriam- Webster dictionary definition of subculture is “a group that has beliefs and behaviors that are different from the main groups within a culture or society”. Subcultures are mostly defined by the core values and beliefs of their members, and not so much by their appearances. Dress is a way to express attitudes, moods, and identities. Subcultures are usually related to ideas of youth and rebelliousness, probably because subcultures are largely about exploration of identity, something that is very important to young people, who are in constant search of it.

Hippies of the 1970's, photo from all-that-is-interesting.com

In Hearts and Masks David Muggleson (2002) writes that subculture is something that is internalized. A person’s subculture reflects inner aspects of themselves, and clothing can be used as an extension of the self. It is not enough to simply wear the style. Anyone can dress the part, but this doesn't mean they have the inner qualities associated with the subculture. Without these inner values and feelings these people are seen as not being genuine by members of the subculture. It’s seen as simply dressing up to fit some kind of image, and as “phony” and “trying too hard”. Inner qualities, beliefs and feelings of internal difference are more highly valued aspects of subculture than actually dressing the part, the belief being that a person’s “inner difference” will shine through no matter what they are wearing. To be a part of a subculture, whether the clothes are worn or not, the expression must first and foremost be sincere. Identity is something that cannot be faked, and comes from the core of a person.

Members of the rave subculture, photo from showbizgeek.com

Muggleson also states that, while everyone is an individual, some people have more individuality than others. People who join with a subculture have likely been brought up in a way that has encouraged them to express individualism. Since personal style is an expression of the self some might assume that means that subcultures people identify with would never change, when in reality people often move through different subcultures and styles. Someone who was once a part of the goth subculture might begin to feel that they relate more with punk, and in turn could very well eventually begin to feel like they relate to something else. In my own experience with my interests in Japanese subcultural fashion, the subculture Lolita used to be a major interest to me, but as I’ve grown older, and my interests and beliefs have changed, I've grown more interested in styles such as Dolly Kei and Cult Party Kei. As people change and grow as a person they begin to reflect their change in identity through the way that they dress. Subcultures themselves change over time, and they easily transform into new styles.

Beatniks of the 1960's, photo from www.catherinenicole.com

Subcultures are often seen as “unnatural” by spectators.  In Subculture: The Unnatural Break (1979) Dick Hebdige writes that they “breach our expectancies”. When a new subculture appears it is often followed by a “wave of hysteria in the press”, and feelings toward it can be anything from feelings of fascination to disgust, or anything in between. It can be made a spectacle of, or it can be publicly ridiculed. The first thing that normally gathers attention for a subculture is the novelty of the style, followed by media and society trying to explain it by “discovering” behaviors that can be considered rebellious and abnormal, which can cause alarm when they goes against social norms. However a subculture starts, it is eventually swallowed up by society again. It becomes more marketable, the terms and visual symbolism associated with it becomes more familiar, and the subculture to become more of a normalcy in society.

The Incroyables and the Merveilleuses were a subculture in France during the late 1700's, photo from the French Wikipedia

Kawamura’s Fashioning Japanese Subcultures also touches on some of Dick Hebridge’s work, saying that “culture” refers to a way of life for the people within it, and “sub” indicates difference from the dominant cultural ideas.  A subculture is made up of a group of individuals whose values and norms go against those which are dominant or mainstream in their society. Phil Cohen (1972) stated that subculture is a compromise between the need to be expressive and creative, and differentiate oneself from parents, and the need to preserve identification with parents.

Flappers of the 1920's, photo from http://3.bp.blogspot.com

These subcultures each have their own image, which makes them recognizable. This can be done through the use of clothing, accessories, body art, hair, vocabulary and more. The use of vocabulary in particular is important for setting them apart, with each subculture using its own slang. The way these elements of a look are coordinated express values, and can be seen as a way to challenge dominant culture. Clothing can be extremely useful in understanding behaviors and beliefs.

Greasers of the 1950's, photo from mafiagame.wikia.com

Kawamura also writes about how, in the world of subculture research, two groups are dominant: Euro-Americans and males.

Almost all research on subcultures conducted by Europeans or citizens of the United States have focused on subcultures of the West. A large part of this has been because of things like language barriers, time and financial constraints, and problems with environment acclimation.

This problem, however, does not just exist in subcultural fashion studies, but in studies of fashion as a whole. Fashion is very Eurocentric, with many presuming that fashion is an invention of the west. Youth or subculture fashion in non-Western countries gets very little attention, in part because they are considered “reproductions” of Western fashion. Even in the world of high fashion Japanese designers are often lumped together as just “Japanese designers”. If you take a look at the work of three designers, Issey Miyake, Rei Kawakubo, and Yohji Yamamoto, you can clearly see that each designer’s style is very distinct from the others. But Japanese designers still struggle with being able to be seen as something besides one member in a group of “Japanese designers”. Multiculturalism and diversity are things that the fashion world struggles with, and fashion from non-Western countries are often automatically viewed in a way that attempts to associate it with something traditional or related solely to culture, rather than the expression of the designers.

Members of the Shibuya based Gyaru and Gyaruo subculture, photo from http://tokyofashion.com

In terms of the other dominant force in subculture research, in the past many studies on subcultures have been criticized for almost solely focusing on men in the working class. Western subcultures themselves a bias toward men. In studies the focus is almost completely on males. I believe this is because subcultures, which bring up images of rebellion and “fighting the man”, are considered masculine forces, and therefore many researchers mistakenly focus mostly on men. Women become almost entirely invisible. But subcultures “give girls empowerment, self-liberation, and allows them to be assertive and aggressive” (Lauraine Leblanc 1999:6)

Harajuku based Sweet Lolitas, photo from guestofaguest.com

Unlike in Western subcultures, in Japan girls are the ones who are the dominant gender. These girls spend a lot of money to perfect their looks with clothing, makeup, wigs and accessories. Their fashion choices are meant to make them stand out and be noticed. Like their Western counterparts members of Japanese subcultures are often treated as deviants.  Girls, in the subculture scene of Japan, have created their own looks and fashion tribes, rather than searching for a place within a make dominated one. Something that is interesting to note is that subcultures are considered masculine, but in the Japanese subculture scene there are many subcultures that are feminine looking, or have elements of hyper cuteness.

Dolly Kei girls, photo from tokyofashion.com

As I was doing my research on the topic of subcultures some thoughts came to me. In Western societies we have an independent view of self, meaning we see ourselves as an “I”, and in Eastern societies, such as Japan, the view of self is interdependent, seeing themselves as part of a “we”, and striving to be part of a group. I wonder how this affects the Japanese subculture scene, which is largely about being independent. If in an independent society we see members of many subcultures as “deviants”, how are subcultures viewed in a country like Japan which values conformity? Or, on the opposite spectrum, what does the subculture scene of Japan say about society itself? I also wondered how girls, the dominant sex in Japanese subcultures, are viewed by society, given that Japan’s views on women are more traditional than in the west. Because subcultures are considered masculine, is it a way for the girls to take part of it to break away from traditional gender roles? Does this mean that Japanese subculture can be seen almost as a feminist movement in Japan?

I’m very excited to have started researching subcultures, and found the information to be very interesting. I’d like to eventually explore the questions above in greater detail. In my next blog I will be talking about Tokyo as a fashion center, and Japan’s place in the world of fashion!